1877 - 1909
Early Balloon and Aerial Reconnaissance
The U.S. Army Signal Corps pioneered balloon reconnaissance to enhance intelligence, acquiring one French balloon tested at sites like Fort Riley amid integration challenges. In the 1898 Santiago campaign multiple ascents spotted Spanish defenses near San Juan Hill, informing General Shafter's tactics in real time. Despite vulnerabilities like balloon damage and enemy fire, it reduced ground scout risks and affirmed aerial technologies strategic value.
Balloon Reconnaissance from 1877 - 1909
Development of aerial information assets
During the late 19th century, the U.S. Army Signal Corps, led by Brigadier General Adolphus W. Greely, began exploring balloon-based reconnaissance as part of broader efforts to modernize military intelligence through technology. This period represented an initial foray into aerial observation, driven by the need to overcome ground-level visibility challenges during combat. Budget limitations restricted the early Corps to acquiring two hot-air balloons from France, one of which was tested in various locations but faced integration issues due to a lack of established strategies and usage guidelines. By the time of the Spanish-American War in 1898, this single balloon (the other remained backup) became a key asset in the Santiago campaign, highlighting both the possibilities and the problems of early aerial platforms.
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Credit: James F. Gibson / Library of Congress (reproduction no. LC-DIG-cwpb-01560), Thaddeus S. Lowe in Balloon 'Intrepid'.
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The balloon's construction involved trained and skilled Signal Corps personnel, including Sergeant William Ivy Baldwin, who helped assemble one of the first deployed balloons over the winter of 1896-1897. Deployed in the dense Cuban jungles, it allowed observers to rise above terrain obstacles, and identify enemy positions and terrain features essential for artillery placement. On June 30, 1898, under Major Joseph E. Maxfield's command, multiple ascents provided critical insights, such as spotting Spanish defenses and movements near San Juan Hill. These observations informed General William R. Shafter's tactical decisions in as real of time as possible (messages tended to be relayed by mounted curriers), which included directing artillery barrages to counter potential ensuing attacks. However, operational hurdles were significant with these early balloons. The balloon's envelope would eventually suffer damage from storage and heat, which limited it to one full inflation without a gas generator on site.
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Credit: Library of Congress (Inflation of Balloon 'Intrepid', printed 1910 by Patriot Publishing Company).
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This developing technology drew on earlier experiments, lighter-than-air flight, tracing back to French innovators like the Montgolfier brothers and J.A.C. Charles, who demonstrated hot air and hydrogen balloons in the 1780s. These demonstrations proved that heated or low-density gas could enable sustained lift, paving the way for military applications. In the U.S., the Civil War had seen limited balloon use by both Union and Confederate forces for reconnaissance, primarily individuals rapidly sketching enemy troop locations, though operations ceased due to logistical issues like gas production shortages and skilled laborers. By the Spanish-American War, the U.S. revived this approach, with the Signal Corps balloon serving as a portable observation post tethered by cables, an early adoption of a combined arms approach where observed data was relayed to a telegraph center for instant communication with the ground forces for informed, decisive action.
Credit: Library of Congress, The Spanish - American War (1898) Map
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Despite the intelligence value, the balloon's aerial presence hovering above the battlefield naturally made it a vulnerable target, attracting enemy fire that endangered nearby troops, including cavalry units. Balloon ascents by leaders such as Lieutenant Colonel George McDerby helped locate Spanish entrenchments and troop concentrations, aiding battlefield strategies and alertness. Yet, multiple vulnerabilities to weather, enemy targeting, and equipment failures underscored the dire need for improvements in this new idea of battlefield reconnaissance. The balloon's descent under fire on July 1, 1898, marked a dramatic end to its use, shrapnel and small arms damage from enemy fire during an engagement at Las Guamas Creek allowed the gas used to lift the balloon to escape and repairs proved impossible in the field. This experience demonstrated aerial reconnaissance's potential to reduce reliance on ground scout units (cavalry and infantry patrols) while enhancing strategic planning, but it also underscored risks like exposure to artillery and the lack of a readily available gas supply. Tethered balloons also serve as ideal indicators of one’s position for enemy spotters. The budgetary drain led to the dissolution of the U.S. Army Signal Corps after the Spanish American war in the very end of 1890’s.
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Credit: Library of Congress (Inflation of Balloon 'Intrepid', (reproduction no. LC-DIG-cwpb-01560)
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The U.S. military saw the aviation progress and information sector , emphasizing elevated views' strategic value in tough terrains. The Signal Corps' initiatives, despite early budgetary and leadership hurdles, affirmed technology's shift in warfare from conventional to enhanced. Following evolutions would refine the early faults that were apparent, eliminating the balloon's constraints for much more robust alternatives and advancements.
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Footnotes:
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Raines, Rebecca. “Manifesting Its Destiny: The U.S. Army Signal Corps in the Spanish-American War.” Army History, no. 46 (1998): 14–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26304991. (14-16)
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National Museum of the United States Air Force. “Lighter-than-Air Flight Display.” Exhibit. National Museum of the United States Air Force. https://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/196758/lighter-than-air-flight/ ;Widmer, Emil J. Military Observation Balloons (Captive and Free): A complete Treatise on Their Manufacture, Equipment, Inspection, and Handling, with Special Instructions for the Training of the Field Balloon Company. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1917. ;Raines, Rebecca. “Manifesting Its Destiny: The U.S. Army Signal Corps in the Spanish-American War.” Army History, no. 46 (1998): 14–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26304991. (14-16)
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Giddings. Howard A. Exploits of the Signal Corps in the War with Spain. Kansas City, MO: Hudson-Kimbery Publishing Co., 1900. (48,124) ;National Museum of the United States Air Force. “Lighter-than-Air Flight Display.” Exhibit. National Museum of the United States Air Force. https://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/196758/lighter-than-air-flight/
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Raines, Rebecca. “Manifesting Its Destiny: The U.S. Army Signal Corps in the Spanish-American War.” Army History, no. 46 (1998): 14–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26304991. (16-17) ;Widmer, Emil J. Military Observation Balloons (Captive and Free): A complete Treatise on Their Manufacture, Equipment, Inspection, and Handling, with Special Instructions for the Training of the Field Balloon Company. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1917.(75-93) ;Chan, Hannah. “The First Air Force: The Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps.” FAA history intern article. (1)
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Chan, Hannah. “The First Air Force: The Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps.” FAA history intern article. (1-3)
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Gibson, James F. "Prof. Thaddeus S. Lowe Observing the Battle from His Balloon 'Intrepid'." Photograph. From Library of Congress: Prints and Photographs Division, Civil War Photographs. Washington, DC (reproduction no. LC-DIG-cwpb-01560).
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Brady, Mathew. "Union Balloon Corps" Photograph. From Library of Congress: Prints and Photographs Division, Civil War Photographs. Washington, DC (reproduction no. LC-DIG-ppmsca-33091).
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"Thaddeus S.C. Lowe and Balloon Corps"​ Photograph. From Library of Congress: Prints and Photographs Division, Civil War Photographs. Washington, DC (reproduction no. LC-DIG-cwpb-01560)
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​Modern School Supply Company, and E. W. A Rowles. The comprehensive series, historical-geographical maps of the United States. [Chicago, Ill.: Modern School Supply Co, 1919] Map. https://www.loc.gov/item/2009581137/.
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Background: "Buffalo Soldier; Spanish-American War." Painting. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (reproduction no. LC-DIG-pga-01889)